Born into slavery
When he became a teacher of Stoicism, the philosopher Epictetus told his students that a person’s caliber is revealed by difficult circumstances. So, when a difficulty occurs, they should think of it as God pitting them, as a trainer might, against a tough training partner. It wasn’t shallow advice. Prior to this, the Stoic had already endured some of the most difficult circumstances a human can face.
Epictetus was born into slavery in 55 AD, at Hierapolis, Phrygia (present-day Pamukkale, in western Turkey). Epictetus spent his early years in the service of Tiberius Claudius Epaphroditus, a man of both wealth and stature, with whom he came to Rome and who also happened to become secretary to the emperor Nero. We don’t even know his real name. The word epíktētos (ἐπίκτητος) is a reference to his slavery. In Greek, it simply means “gained” or “acquired.”
Early in life, Epictetus became disabled. There are conflicting stories regarding how this happened.
Certain histories hold that the disability was the result of rheumatism, and others that his leg was broken during a deliberate twisting by his master. The truth is unknown, but even if his master was cruel, we know Epaphroditus allowed Epictetus to pursue his passion for Stoic philosophy. He was permitted to study under the tutelage of Musonius Rufus, an eminent instructor who greatly influenced his student’s future path.
Freedom
Around 80 AD, Epictetus was freed by Epaphroditus.
His mind had been freed long before that through his Stoic studies, and he would go on to insist that the goal of one’s life should be this state of mental freedom.
As a free man in Rome he taught philosophy Around 93 AD, however, Nero’s successor Domitian ordered all philosophers out of the city. Domitian was known as a ruthless authoritarian, and the philosophers of the day may have been fortunate to get away with their lives.
By this time, Epictetus had built up enough of a reputation to truly make a go of things when he arrived in Nicopolis, the largest city in Western Greece This would be his new home, and would remain so for the last three decades of his life. Epictetus established a successful school there, preferring it to Athens as it was closer to Italy.
He lived a simple, frugal life and would eventually retire from teaching an elderly man. Interestingly, at this point, Epictetus, apparently having lived alone for a long time, adopted a child and took in a female housekeeper to help with household duties.
Discourses
Despite being a prominent teacher, Epictetus wrote nothing.
He delivered (and lived) his teaching. His students, however, took notes.
One of these students was Lucius Flavius Arrianus, whose Discourses were allegedly written, verbatim, from Epictetus’ lectures. Thankfully, Arrian’s transcriptions give us an excellent insight into Stoic teachings. Four (of an original eight) volumes of Discourses have survived. They cover a broad spectrum of topics, as taught in Epictetus’s classes. Some of the main points and overriding themes from these lectures are summarized in Arrian’s shorter Handbook or Enchiridion.
The three disciplines
One of Epictetus’s biggest contributions to Stoic thought is what is known as “the three disciplines.” According to the Stoic teacher, they are what the aspiring Stoic must practise to live fully according to Nature.
They are as follows:
- The Discipline of Desire. The discipline of desire guides us on what we should want, what we should avoid, and generally what we should spend our time on. It is closely aligned with the Stoic virtues of Courage and Moderation.
- The Discipline of Action. The discipline of action guides us on how to live in harmony with other people. It is closely aligned with the Stoic virtue of Justice.
- The Discipline of Assent. The discipline of assent guides us on how to make good judgments about what happens to us. It is closely aligned with the Stoic virtue of Wisdom.
The dichotomy of control
Epictetus is probably most famous in philosophical circles for his dichotomy of control.
At the beginning of his Enchiridion, he gives the advice that went on to guide so much of Stoic practice:
Some things are within our power, while others are not. Within our power are opinion, motivation, desire, aversion, and, in a word, whatever is of our own doing; not within our power are our body, our property, reputation, office, and, in a word, whatever is not of our own doing.
The dichotomy of control tells us what depends on us and what doesn’t. Per Epictetus, the only things we are in complete control of are our judgments and our actions. Everything else in life – including things like wealth, health, and other people’s opinions – depends to some extent on external circumstances. We can try to influence these things but ultimately we do not have complete control over them.
The chief task in life is simply this: to identify and separate matters so that I can say clearly to myself which are externals not under my control, and which have to do with the choices I actually control. Where then do I look for good and evil? Not to uncontrollable externals, but within myself to the choices that are my own.
Epictetus, Discourses 2.5.4–5
Dedication to freedom
What makes these concepts ever more credible is the fact that, as mentioned, Epictetus was no stranger to tribulation.
He overcame the daily struggle of disability to instruct, uplift, and empower even those whose stars were far better aligned than his. He did this through his dedication to freedom, that is: affecting the things we can control and accepting the things we can’t. While many of the notable Stoics held positions of rank and power, Epictetus was one who rose in stature from a born slave to a revered philosopher.
A student ought to approach his education with this objective: ‘How can I follow the gods in everything? How can I be content with the divine dispensation? How can I become free?’ Because someone is free if everything that happens to him is in accord with his will and no one is able to impede him.”
Discourses 1.12.8-9
Epictetus believed that freedom could be gained by living virtuously, despite one’s circumstances.
Still, one can only wonder what pearls would have been lost, had he not gained his freedom but instead lived out his years as a student of philosophy only. Epictetus died of old age in 135 A.D, but his legacy lives on, having influenced many over the subsequent ages, including Marcus Aurelius, James Joyce, Albert Ellis, and more.
